Early Humans

The earth formed billions of years ago. Life began much later with tiny, simple living things. Over time, more complex living things appeared. Modern humans, called Homo sapiens, appeared about 300,000 years ago. Compared to the earth's long history, humans have been here for a very short time.

Modern humans evolved over millions of years from a stooping, ape-like creature. During this time, their bodies changed. They learned to walk upright, which freed their hands to pick up, carry and throw things. Their thumbs evolved, helping them to hold and use tools. Their brains also grew, making them smarter. They began to use stones to hunt, crack nuts and cut things. This period in prehistory is called the Stone Age. It started over 3.3 million years ago and lasted a very long time. During this period, humans shaped stones into tools for hunting and gathering food. They discovered that sharp stones could cut and round stones could crush. Slowly, they made better tools and weapons. Stone was the main material they used, but they also used bones, wood and animal horns.

 

The Stone Age

The Stone Age is divided into three parts based on the tools humans used and how they lived.

• The Palaeolithic Age, or the Old Stone Age ('Palaeo' means old, and 'lithos' means stone in Greek)

• The Mesolithic Age, or the Middle Stone Age ('Meso' means middle)

• The Neolithic Age, or the New Stone Age ('Neo' means new)

 

The Palaeolithic Age

The Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age) was the longest part of the Stone Age. Our ideas about this period come mainly from material remains discovered by archaeologists and palaeontologists. These include bones of humans and animals, tools made by early humans and paintings on cave walls. Palaeolithic remains have been found in the Soan River Valley (in Pakistan), the Narmada region, the Deccan, and some parts of South India. When scholars study an object they have found, they also study the soil around it. This gives them some information about the climate and plants of that time.

We can also learn more about the lives of early humans by studying tribal groups today, like the Todas in the Nilgiri Hills and the Jarawas and Onges in the Andaman Islands. These groups still follow old ways of life, which helps us understand how early humans might have lived.

Daily life Palaeolithic man lived in caves and rock shelters. He was a nomad, moving from place to place in search of food. He did not know how to grow food, so he hunted animals, fished, and gathered plants, berries, nuts, roots and tubers. This is why he is called a hunter-gatherer.

Hunter-gatherers learned to understand animal behaviour. Even though they were slower and weaker than many animals, they could still hunt and protect themselves. Thinking and problem-solving became more important than strength.

Hunter-gatherers carefully watched their surroundings while searching for food. They noticed how plants changed with the seasons and learned what was safe to eat or use. They figured out how to use animal skins and leaves for clothing, and stones, bones, wood and horns to make tools and weapons. They also learned how to make fire.

Palaeolithic people usually lived in small groups. Groups could hunt large animals and share the food before it spoiled. Living in groups also provided safety from natural dangers. Everyone in the group worked together, and there were no inequalities. However, life in the Palaeolithic Age was full of dangers, and the average lifespan was only 20-25 years.

Tool-making: Palaeolithic tools were mostly made by chipping stones. They were of two main types.

·         Core tools: These were made by chipping pieces off large rocks or hand-sized pebbles. The remaining stone after chipping was called the core. Core tools were usually oval-or pear-shaped. They were used as hand axes for heavy tasks like cutting trees, digging for roots and tubers, and breaking bones. Some were used as cleavers to cut large pieces of meat.

·         Flake tools: These were made from the sharp Hand axe pieces, or flakes, that broke off while making core tools. Flake tools were useful for chopping meat and skinning animals.

Methods of chipping stone:  Palaeolithic people used different methods of chipping stones.

o   Direct method: A pebble or a piece of bone or wood was used as a hammer to chip off pieces from a softer stone.

o   Indirect method: This method was used later in the Palaeolithic Age to shapes flakes into tools. A stone flake was first placed on a hard surface. Then a sharp piece of wood or bone was placed on the flake like a chisel. Finally, this chisel was hammered with another stone or piece of bone or wood.

Discovery of fire: Ash found at some palaeolithic sites shows that palaeolithic people knew about fire. They likely saw fire for the first time when lightning struck trees. At first, they were afraid of it. But over time, they learned to use it to scare away wild animals. Since they did not know how to make fire, they had to take turns keeping it burning all the time.

Eventually, they accidentally discovered how to create fire by rubbing two stones or pieces of wood together. Now they could make fire whenever they needed it. It helped them stay warm, light up dark caves and roast meat for food.

This was a big moment in a palaeolithic man's life. It was the first time he gained control over an element of nature.

 

The Mesolithic Age

The Palaeolithic Age lasted for a very long time. Towards the end of the Palaeolithic Age, the climate became warmer. So, more plants and animals began to appear. This made hunting and gathering food easier. These changes marked the start of the Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age).

In India, mesolithic remains have been found in places like Mysuru in Karnataka, and parts of western and central India. We know about the life of mesolithic people in India from the tools, cave and rock paintings and burials found at these sites.

Mesolithic tools Hunting and gathering food were the main activities of the mesolithic people. But their tools became much better. They started making small stone tools called microliths. 'Micro' means small, so these tools were tiny, about 1 to 5 centimetres long. Microliths were sharp stone blades. They were often attached to wood or bone to make things like spears, saws, knives and arrows. These new tools made hunting and gathering much easier.

With better tools, people could do new things. They could collect honey, hunt faster animals using bows and arrows, and catch fish with hooks. Fish became an important part of their food.

 

Domestication of plants and animals

Domestication means bringing plants and animals under human control. This began in the Mesolithic Age when people started growing crops and taming animals.

Mesolithic people discovered that seeds from grasses like barley and wheat were good for food. While gathering these seeds, some might have fallen on the ground and grown into plants. This helped people understand how seeds grew into crops. Soon, they began planting seeds in the soil to grow their own food.

People also noticed that some animals came near their settlements to eat leftover food. Over time, they learned how to tame these animals. The first animal they tamed was the dog. Dogs helped with hunting and guarded people's homes.

The first houses: Most people still lived in caves and rock shelters. However, some people returned to places where they had planted seeds to harvest their crops. They stayed there until the crops were used up. These people started

building simple houses. Houses were usually built in the river valleys, where there was plenty of water and fertile soil for growing crops.

Paintings: Many cave and rock paintings in India were made during the Mesolithic Age. The main colours used were red and white. These colours were made from rocks and natural minerals. The paintings show the daily life of the mesolithic people. They show activities like hunting, fishing, collecting honey and religious worship.

Some of the poses in these paintings look a lot like the tribal dances we see today. These dances were probably parts of rituals performed before people went hunting.

Burials: Human burials have been found at some Mesolithic sites. The dead were often buried with food and ornaments.

The Neolithic Age

The Neolithic Age (New Stone Age) followed the Mesolithic Age. Neolithic remains in India have been found in places like Kashmir, the northern Vindhyas, the middle Ganga valley, and parts of eastern, northeastern and southern India.

Neolithic tools Neolithic people made tools from harder stones and polished them to make sharper blades. They created tools to match their new needs, like growing crops. They made axes for clearing forests, sickles for harvesting and better digging tools. They also made spindles and bone needles. Many of these tools are still used in some form today.

Farming and herding In the Neolithic Age, man shifted from primarily gathering food to growing it. He changed from being a hunter-gatherer to a food-producer. He learned how to take care of crops and started keeping animals.

We know what crops the neolithic people grew by studying old pollen and seeds found in the soil. For example, archaeologists found wheat and lentils at Chirand in Bihar and horse gram at Tekkalakota in Karnataka. Sometimes, the neolithic people burned forests to clear land forfarming, as shown by charcoal found in the soil.

Over time, people learned to choose the best seeds to plant. This made domesticated plants better than wild plants of the same type.

The neolithic people also tamed animals that were calm and easy to handle. They kept these animals until they needed them for food. Bones and animal shelters found at neolithic sites tell us about this. For example, a cattle pen was found at Koldihwa in Uttar Pradesh, and bones of cattle, sheep and goats were found at Tekkalakota in Karnataka. People used cattle to help with farming and carrying loads.

People only let the gentlest animals with small horns and teeth to have babies. Over time, these domesticated animals became different from wild ones. For example, wild goats have larger horns than farm goats today.

Why farming and herding were important

·         Farming gave people a steady supply of food.

·         People still hunted, but animals they tamed gave them meat, milk and hides.

·         Farming allowed people to grow more food than they needed.

·         Extra food gave them time to learn new skills and try new activities.

·         People needed to stay in one place for longer periods to take care of their crops. This led to the first permanent villages and the start of community life.

Pot-making: Neolithic people made baskets to store extra grains. The baskets were woven from wild grass, then coated with wet clay and dried in the sun. These clay-coated baskets were good for storing dry grains, but they couldn't hold milk or water. Later, people learned to bake clay pots in fire. Baked clay pots could store liquids like milk and water. People could also cook food in these pots.

Invention of the wheel: The wheel was one of the greatest inventions of the Neolithic people. They might have got the idea from watching logs of wood roll. Wheels made transport easier and helped people do things faster.

The potter's wheel made it easier to shape pots. Wheels may have also been used to spin thread. This helped

people learn weaving. Once they knew how to weave, people used cotton and wool to make clothes.

Community life: When people started farming, they settled down permanently and began living in hamlets (small villages). These neolithic hamlets had a few houses built close together. The hamlets were usually surrounded by fences made of prickly bushes or mud.

Families became important during this time. Families in a hamlet were related and shared the same customs, beliefs and ways of worship. A group of families formed a tribe. Tribes worked together for the welfare of everyone. Present-day tribes in remote areas live in ways similar to neolithic tribes, helping us learn about their lifestyle.

In a neolithic hamlet, people worked together in activities like farming, herding, hunting, gathering and fishing. The tribe owned all natural resources like land, forests and water together. There were no differences in wealth among the members. Work was divided based on age, wisdom and strength. The eldest or strongest man became the leader. He made rules and ensured the welfare of the tribe.

Men hunted, ploughed fields and cared for large herds of animals. Women looked after the home and children. They also helped with light farm work, like planting seeds, harvesting crops and protecting fields from birds.

Both men and women made pots, wove cloth and created tools, weapons and ornaments. Everyone in the tribe worked together to meet their needs and ensure the welfare of the group.

Religion: Neolithic people worshipped natural elements like water, fire, the sun and the earth. They worshipped cows for their usefulness and snakes out of fear.

Burials: Neolithic people buried their dead. They marked the graves with large stone blocks called megaliths.'Mega' means big. Many megaliths have been found at places like Adichanallur in South India.

Sometimes, they buried the dead in pots called urns. They also placed items the person used during their life in the grave. This shows they believed in the afterlife (life after death). Some neolithic people also practiced cremation, where the body was burned.

COOL TIDBITS

Have you ever seen footprints on wet sand or mud? Now imagine finding footprints millions of years old!

The Laetoli footprints, found in Tanzania, are just that. About 3.6 million years ago, three ancestors of modern humans walked on wet ash, leaving behind these prints. Over time, natural processes covered and preserved the prints.

These prints show that the early humans who left them were walking upright on two legs, just like us. Their big toes

were in line with the rest of their feet, making their feet more human-like than ape-like. Their gait was also similar to

how we walk today.

It is amazing how simple footprints can tell us so much about the past!

 

During the Palaeolithic Age, the earth was very cold because it was the last major ice age. An ice age is a time when much of the earth is covered in ice, and the climate becomes extremely cold. In the earth's history, there have been alternating phases of warm and cold climates, each lasting 10,000-15,000 years. The cold phases are called the ice ages.

Around 11,700 years ago, the earth started to warm up. This warming marked the beginning of the Mesolithic Age. Today, we are still in the warm phase that started at that time. As the ice melted, water flowed into oceans and rivers, causing water levels to rise. The meltwater also made the land fertile and suitable for growing plants. Forests and grasslands began to spread across the land.

 

KNOW THIS TOO

Stone Age sites in India Hunsgi in Karnataka is one of the oldest sites where archaeologists found evidence of palaeolithic life in India. People here made stone tools like hand axes, scrapers, knives and borers (tools to make holes) to get their work done. Most of these tools were made from limestone found nearby.

Hunsgi had many natural springs that gave people water. During the dry season, they camped near the springs and hunted animals that came to drink. In the wet season, they found food from plants and hunted smaller animals. Life was all about surviving with what nature provided!

Mehrgarh in present-day Pakistan, is one of the earliest farming villages we know about. People lived in mud-brick houses with multiple rooms, some of which were used to store grains. They grew crops like wheat, barley and cotton and raised cattle, sheep and goats.

Their tools were made from polished stones, bones and microliths. The pottery they made was often decorated with interesting designs. When someone died, they buried them in pits along with domestic animals, perhaps to provide for them in the afterlife.

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